Incineration is one of main options for managing waste in society, with two others being recycling and sending waste to landfills.
In the guide below, we list the potential pros and cons of waste incineration, and waste to energy plants.
(Note – the guide below complements our separate guide on the pros and cons of incinerating specifically plastic as a material (as opposed to general waste).)
Summary – Pros & Cons Of Waste Incineration & Waste To Energy
Potential Pros
A summary list of the potential pros outlined in the guide below include:
Incineration Is Already Popular In Some Countries
There’s Various Types Of Incinerators, Incinerator Designs, & Incinerator Methods – All With Their Own Capabilities
Modern Incineration Technology May Have The Ability To Reduce Environmental Impact, & Help Reduce Impact On Human Health
Waste To Energy Plants Generate Energy, & This Energy Has A Range Of Potential Uses
Waste To Energy Incineration Can Replace The Burning Of Fossil Fuels In Some Instances
Recovered Energy Might Be Cheaper Than Some Other Forms Of Energy
Waste May Be A Reliable & Stable Source Of Fuel For Energy & Heat Generation
Incineration Can Reduce The Solid Mass & Volume Of Waste
Some Materials May Have Favorable Traits For Incineration
Other Materials Might Be Favorable To Burn For Energy Too
Fly Ash Waste From Incineration Might Be Re-Used, Or Effectively Managed
Incineration May Be Beneficial For Land Scarce Countries
Some Incineration Plants Are Efficient
Incineration Might Be More Beneficial Than Landfills In Some Ways
Incineration Might Complement Recycling As A Waste Management Option, & Be Used Alongside It
Incineration Might Help Realize The Full Value Of Some Types Of Waste That Would Have Gone To Landfill
Incineration Might Be The Most Eco Friendly Waste Management Option For Some Consumer Items
Potential Cons
A summary list of the potential cons outlined in the guide below include:
Incineration Can Contribute To Several Environmental Issues
Some Incineration Plants May Contribute To Environmental Issues More Than Others
Produces Fly Ash – A Potentially Hazardous Waste By-Product
Some Incineration Plants May Be More Of A Risk To Human Health & Safety Than Others
May Have A Range Of Potential Economic Issues
Incineration Can Be Location Dependent
Some Incineration Plants Can Be Inefficient
May Need Regular Monitoring
Audit Reporting Data Might Be Able To Be Manipulated
Auditing Of Incineration Plants Can Have Other Challenges & Variables That Impact The Final Report
Recycling May Be More Beneficial In Some Ways
Landfill May Be More Beneficial In Some Ways
Incentives & Pressures To Incinerate Waste Can Divert Waste From Recycling Or Composting
Protectionism & Local Bias Can Be Issues In Some Countries When Trying To Bid On New Incineration Projects
May Remove Some Accountability & Responsibility From Citizens & Businesses To Manage Waste Correctly
There Can Be Misperception Or Greenwashing Of Incineration As The Most Sustainable & Circular Waste Management Solution, Or A Renewable Form Of Energy Generation, When In Reality It Isn’t
Reduction Of Waste By Producers & Consumers May Be More Beneficial Than Incineration In Some Ways
Some Companies That Own Incineration Plants Or Invest In Them Have Several Conflicts Of Interest
Some Companies That Own Incineration Plants Or Invest In Them, Might Buy Them For Questionable Reasons
Some Companies That Own Incineration Plants Or Invest In Them, Might Have Questionable Operation Practices
What Waste Management Options Are Most Commonly Being Used By Cities Worldwide Right Now?
The reality is that many countries and cities currently rely on landfills to dispose of a significant % of their general waste (compared to recycling and incineration), and the same trend follows with the majority of some specific materials like plastic also going to landfill.
Although average global recycling rates and incineration rates may increase in the future, it might be accurate to say that landfills are at least an important part of the short to medium term waste management strategies of many cities.
Potential Pros Of Waste Incineration & Waste To Energy
Incineration Is Already Popular In Some Countries
From wikipedia.org:
Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan, Singapore and the Netherlands, where land is a scarce resource … [and] Denmark and Sweden have been leaders by using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century
In 2005, waste incineration produced 4.8% of the electricity consumption and 13.7% of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark.
A number of other European countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, and France …
There’s Various Types Of Incinerators, Incinerator Designs, & Incinerator Methods – All With Their Own Capabilities
Different incinerators have different capabilities in terms of their performance, the waste they can treat, and more.
They all offer different benefits and potential drawbacks too.
We outlined the different incinerator types, designs and methods in this guide.
Modern Incineration Technology May Have The Ability To Reduce Environmental Impact, & Help Reduce Impact On Human Health
Some incineration plants may use newer technology that helps reduce the potential negative impact of incineration plants on the environment and human health.
Efficient combustion, end-of-pipe treatment, selective catalytic reduction, and the addition of suitable inhibitors or devices to capture pollutants, toxins and emissions may be examples of some of this technology.
[Modern environmental benefits] look far more favorably on landfill [and also incineration now, when weighing both up against recycling] (wbur.org)
Waste To Energy Plants Generate Energy, & This Energy Has A Range Of Potential Uses
Waste to energy plants involve the combustion of waste for energy recovery i.e. the generation of electricity (from steam), or heat
There’s a range of potential applications for this electricity or heat
Heat from incineration can be used to generate steam, which can be used to turn turbines and generate electricity.
Electricity can be used to power households, amongst other uses
Heat can be used for municipal heating systems
Waste To Energy Incineration Can Replace The Burning Of Fossil Fuels In Some Instances
In instances where waste is combusted for energy recovery, this form of energy generation might replace the burning of fossil fuels (like coal) for energy generation.
This may be a benefit from a renewable resources perspective, and also if incineration is more eco friendly than burning fossil fuels
Recovered Energy Might Be Cheaper Than Some Other Forms Of Energy
Some reports indicate that incineration plants in some countries (like China) produce energy that is cheaper than the energy currently generated from new sustainable energy (wind and solar) projects
Waste May Be A Reliable & Stable Source Of Fuel For Energy & Heat Generation
Some reports claim that waste as an energy or heat source is a stable and reliable fuel source (because waste is always being generated)
In comparison, the non renewable nature of energy sources like fossil fuels may not make them as reliable/stable according to some reports
Waste generation may also grow in the future as the population grows, which means that waste supplies may grow
Incineration Can Reduce The Solid Mass & Volume Of Waste, Which Has Several Potential Benefits
These benefits may include reducing the space needed for waste disposal, and also benefitting countries that are land scarce.
Reduction Of Solid Mass & Volume By Incineration
‘Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80%–85% and the volume (already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks) by 95%–96%, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling’ (wikipedia.org)
Incineration vs Landfills & Compaction – Volume Of Waste
Also from wikipedia.org:
… while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal.
Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator.
Alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70% by using a stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant energy cost.
In many countries, simpler waste compaction is a common practice for compaction at landfills.
Some Materials May Have Favorable Traits For Incineration
One example of a material might be plastic.
Plastic waste can be used in cement kilns as a fuel source because plastic has a higher energy output and energy density than some other types of waste (from it’s petroleum feedstock)
Other Materials Might Be Favorable To Burn For Energy Too
In addition to plastic, wood is another example of a material that can be incinerated as waste for energy production
Some reports indicate that timber incineration for energy production is carbon neutral
Fly Ash Waste From Incineration Might Be Re-Used, Or Effectively Managed
For example, it might be used as construction aggregate once it’s been treated.
If it’s not re-used, it can be treated first, and then it might be managed by being buried
Incineration May Be Beneficial For Land Scarce Countries
Incineration can be a good option in countries where land is scarce, as the waste is burnt without having to create additional capacity at landfills, or find additional land suitable for new landfill sites.
Some Incineration Plants Are Efficient
Efficient in the sense of converting waste to energy or heat for example.
Incineration Might Be More Beneficial Than Landfills In Some Ways
– Environmental
Using incineration over landfill may mean that there isn’t the potential pollution issues that might arise from landfill such as breaching of the soil liner of leachate, or not having adequate leachate management systems.
Incineration may mean that there isn’t the emission of methane from organic food decomposing in landfills, although, incineration can have other emissions in some instances.
There’s also the possibility that incineration prevents hard waste from getting out into the environment in the case where a landfill site is inadequately managed or not properly contained.
– Land Use & Land Requirements
Landfill sites need suitable land and soil to be approved and set up.
– Space For Waste
Incineration doesn’t face the same limitation of landfills running out of space, or having to manage and compact waste.
– Risks
Landfill can be open to a range of risks, such as flood risks, or bushfire risks, just as two examples.
Incineration Might Complement Recycling As A Waste Management Option, & Be Used Alongside It
Some materials can’t be recycled at all, and some materials can only be recycled a limited number of times before they can’t be recycled any longer.
Incineration provides an option to manage these types of waste, whilst recyclable materials can go to recycling facilities.
Incineration can also process contaminated plastics and other plastics and materials that are rejected from recycling facilities.
Incineration can also generate energy from this waste instead of it going to landfill.
Recycling and waste-to-energy might be complementary to achieve lower landfill rates.
Countries with the highest rates of garbage incineration — Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, for example, all incinerate at least 50 percent of their waste — also tend to have high rates of recycling and composting of organic materials and food waste (e360.yale.edu)
Incineration Might Help Realize The Full Value Of Some Types Of Waste That Would Have Gone To Landfill
Waste that goes to landfill reaches the end of it’s lifecycle there and might contribute no further value to society.
Waste that goes to incineration however can be burnt for energy, so, some types of waste may end up contributing greater value at incineration plants by providing energy that can be used for electricity or heating.
Some studies show there may be reasonable potential to get extra value from waste currently going to landfill too
A recent study showed 90% of what goes to landfill has market value … (popularmechanics.com)
Incineration Might Be The Most Eco Friendly Waste Management Option For Some Consumer Items
Some case studies on shopping bags (single use and reusable) in some countries indicate that incineration is a more eco friendly waste management option than landfill or recycling for some types of bags across some sustainability indicators
Potential Cons Of Waste Incineration & Waste To Energy
Incineration Can Contribute To Several Environmental Issues
– Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The combustion of waste can result mainly in the emission of carbon dioxide, but, methane and nitrous oxide can also be emitted.
Burning municipal solid waste emits ‘nearly as much carbon per unit of energy as coal, and almost twice as much as natural gas’ (theconversation.com)
– Air Pollution
Waste combusted an incineration plants can emit toxins and pollutants that impact local air quality.
Examples might include carbon monoxide (CO) and noxious emissions, dioxins and particulates, and even heavy metals like lead and mercury.
One source found that incineration facilities in New York ‘released up to 14 times more mercury, twice as much lead and four times as much cadmium per unit of energy than coal plants’ (theconversation.com)
In the US, there has been a case of an incineration facility having to pay a significant fine (in the millions of dollars) to the EPA for pollution breaches
– Some Waste To Energy Plants Are Replacing Cleaner Forms Of Energy Generation
When energy is recovered/generated from waste, the energy mix (for energy generation) that it is replacing should be considered.
If it’s replacing a cleaner energy mix, such as some solar or wind energy mixes for example, this might be less desirable from a sustainability perspective.
If it’s replacing dirtier energy generation (such as some fossil fuels), it might be more sustainable.
Some Incineration Plants May Contribute To Environmental Issues More Than Others
Different incineration plants have the ability to contribute to environmental issues more than than others depending on factors such as:
– Technology, Devices & Features
Some incineration plants use technology, devices and features that manage emissions, air pollutants and other environmental risks.
Those that don’t may obviously have more of a negative environmental impact.
Old waste incineration plants and technology may be lagging in the technology, devices and features they use, whilst the newest incineration plants may have far better pollution and dioxin filters, and other technology to protect the environment and human health.
– Regulations
Some cities and countries may have regulations in place for the operation of incineration plants and their impact on the environment, whilst some may not.
Some cities and countries may also enforce these regulations more strictly than others.
Part of enforcing regulations may include auditing and monitoring incineration plants.
Produces Fly Ash – A Potentially Hazardous Waste By-Product
Combustion at municipal solid waste incineration plants produces fly ash as a waste by-product.
Fly ash is a type of hazardous waste by-product that can contain left over heavy metals (like lead and mercury) , and requires treatment before it is disposed of.
If not managed, treated and disposed of correctly, fly ash can be hazardous to human health and the environment.
Some Incineration Plants May Be More Of A Risk To Human Health & Safety Than Others
– Health & Safety Standards & Regulations
Some cities may have health and safety standards for the operation of incineration plants, whilst others may not.
Management of air pollutants, management of toxins and dioxins, and the management and treatment of fly ash, may be some of the ways that human health and safety can be better protected.
May Have A Range Of Potential Economic Issues
– To Set Up, & Operate
Incinerators can be extremely expensive to build. According to some reports, large, modern facilities in Europe can cost in the range of $150 million to $230 million.
There are also operation costs to consider.
This is on the investor and government funding side.
For waste management companies and waste collectors, there’s also the consideration of the cost per tonne to manage waste via incineration for the municipal waste stream vs landfill and recycling waste management options.
– Upfront Financial Risk
Significant upfront investment costs may increase the financial risk in the instance that the incineration plant isn’t successful or feasible long term.
– Opportunity Cost
Some reports indicate that investment in incineration plants comes at the opportunity cost of our investment in recycling plants.
Recycling programs, technology and facilities could be developed and improved instead.
e360.yale.edu indicates that [there is] a myth that recycling is harder and less efficient (due to sorting and processing) [and] recycling rates of 70%+ would be easily attainable if European countries and other countries switched their main focus and financial investment to recycling instead of incineration
– Subsidies, Government Funding & Incentives May Hide True Profitability & Economic Feasibility Of Incineration
In some countries and cities, incineration receives significant government support and incentives.
Some reports indicate that incineration may not be economically feasible or profitable without this public sector support.
When taking into account set up costs, operation costs, and different factors such as having a dependable waste stream, local electricity prices, and other factors, making a profit may be a challenge for some plants.
Some sources say Swedish incineration is not profitable (forbes.com)
The costs to build the facilities [for incineration] and to run them are covered mainly by public funds with very little private contribution (zerowasteeurope.eu)
– May Result In Higher Taxes & Waste Management Fees For Citizens
[Incineration’s] costs are, in reality, [are] to be paid by the citizens through higher taxes and bills for waste management (zerowasteeurope.eu)
– Economic Flexibility, Reliance & Dependence
Waste-to-power profits usually come from electricity sales and waste disposal subsidies.
Costs include the purchase and maintenance of equipment and staff.
Those costs are basically fixed, but income depends on how much waste you process
If plants aren’t processing enough waste (they don’t get the supply they need), or they don’t get enough of the right type of waste (high energy, burns well) – the plant will turn a loss and it doesn’t make economic sense to keep it running.
With this the case – incineration plants are HIGHLY reliant on the amount of waste and the type of waste supply they are getting.
They may not be as flexible with how they can operate compared to landfill or recycling facilities in this regard.
Recycling … is more flexible and dynamic than incineration (zerowasteeurope.eu)
Incineration Can Be Location Dependent
Incineration can be dependent on certain local conditions and factors to operate in a feasible manner, including but not limited to:
– Having the right type of waste (with an adequate heating value), and a consistent waste stream available
– The energy mix in the city or town
– Local electricity prices
– The other waste management options available
– Public policy, and having governments that can properly provide public support and funding to new incineration projects
Some reports indicate that incineration plants tend to only do well in locations with waste with a high heating value and well-off local governments
Some Incineration Plants Can Be Inefficient
Inefficient in the sense of converting waste to energy or heat for example.
May Need Regular Monitoring
Incineration plants may need regular and continual external monitoring to make sure they are safe from an environmental and human health perspective in terms of their emissions and waste that they produce, and to make sure they are meeting standards and in compliance with regulations
Audit Reporting Data Might Be Able To Be Manipulated
Some reports indicate that manipulation of external emissions auditing may happen in some countries and location.
Inspecting how much active carbon is being used – which absorbs dioxins well – is a way to tell how environmentally friendly a plant is
These reports indicate that some plants may use more active carbon in the days before an auditing body visits to manipulate data for the audit
Auditing Of Incineration Plants Can Have Other Challenges & Variables That Impact The Final Report
Such as:
– Dioxins sometimes being hard to detect because of how small they are (which can also make it hard to gauge how damaging incineration plants can be to local communities)
– Weather impacting how accurate the readings are on the day the audit is conducted
Recycling May Be More Beneficial In Some Ways
– Environmental
Some plastics may rate better across global warming potential and energy use indicators when recycled compared to incineration
– Energy Use
Some reports indicate that recycling most materials from municipal solid waste saves on average three to five times more energy than does burning them for electricity
There may also be subsequent carbon emission reductions from this saved energy
A combination of recycling and composting can save three to four times more energy than an incinerator can produce (zerowasteeurope.eu)
– Profitability
From zerowasteeurope.eu:
[Compared to waste incineration,] the recycling sector has developed into a successful business.
In Germany, its turnover increased by 520 per cent between 2005 and 2009
There are generous government subsidies to set up and run [incineration plants] but they take many years (20-30 years) to see a profit/return on investment, and investors have to put a certain amount of waste into them (per day, or per year) to guarantee a certain amount of profits and provide a certain amount of jobs.
– Employment & Job Creation
Recycling [might create] more jobs [that incineration] … (zerowasteeurope.eu)
– Resource Recovery May Be A Better Long Term Option Than Burning Resources For Energy
With a growing population, and with some resources decreasing or depleting, it might not make sense to burn waste, even for energy.
There might be more of a focus on re-using and recycling resources instead
Landfill May Be More Beneficial In Some Ways
– Environmental
One area some incineration plants might be worse than some landfills is air pollutants.
clientearth.org indicates that ‘[the toxins and pollutants from incineration that] harm local air quality … [make a] more significant contribution to local air quality than landfill’
Incentives & Pressures To Incinerate Waste Can Divert Waste From Recycling Or Composting
Some waste may be better suited to composting or recycling.
However, there can be incentives or pressures that arise from setting up and operating incineration plants that mean waste is diverted to incineration plants instead (and recycling and composting rates consequentially drop)
Some of the incentives or pressures might include:
– The cost to run incineration plants, and how profitability or the ability to meet these costs relies on having a consistent waste stream to burn
– To cover the risk of financial loss, it may be written into some contracts that the city has to guarantee a certain amount of waste is sent to an incineration plant every year
Put another way:
[Generous government subsidies to run incineration plants, and pressure to make a profit from regularly burning waste may lead to] continuing to run older plants that are damaging to the environment and human health [and also diverting] waste that can be recycled away from recycling plants (because the incineration plants need it to make a profit, and incineration rates might be much cheaper than recycling because of the subsidies)
Protectionism & Local Bias Can Be Issues In Some Countries When Trying To Bid On New Incineration Projects
Some reports indicate that in some countries (with China being one potential example), local protectionism and relationships of other bidders to members of government, makes it expensive and difficult to put in bids for new incineration plants, and have a competitive advantage over local bidders who receive big subsidies.
The connections, technology, and price bid by the bidder can matter.
There can be loopholes in certain bidder requirements too.
May Remove Some Accountability & Responsibility From Citizens & Businesses To Manage Waste Correctly
When incineration waste streams are available, the accountability and responsibility for citizens and businesses to sort waste into recycling and composting waste streams where available might be disincentivized or removed.
There Can Be Misperception Or Greenwashing Of Incineration As The Most Sustainable & Circular Waste Management Solution, Or A Renewable Form Of Energy Generation, When In Reality It Isn’t
– Waste Management
Incineration is not fully sustainable or circular for waste management.
Although waste is produced everyday, the resources the waste come from aren’t renewable, and the incineration process currently isn’t fully sustainable.
Other waste management options may be better in some ways than incineration for some types of waste.
– Energy Generation
Additionally, incineration and co-incineration for waste for energy generation isn’t fully renewable for the same reasons.
Other types of energy generation (when considering waste to energy functions), such as renewable energy like solar, wind and hydro, may be more renewable than incineration.
From theconversation.com:
Some see incinerators as a ‘false solution to climate change that diverts precious resources, time and attention from more systemic solutions, such as waste reduction and real renewable fuels like solar and wind … [and] The same might be said for co-incinerators, cement kilns and coal plants.’
Some reports indicate that co-firing, or co-incineration, which involves the burning of waste alongside traditional fossil fuels like coal in facilities such as cement kilns, coal-fired power plants and industrial boilers – is seen as an unsustainable and nonrenewable form of waste disposal and energy generation
– Greenwashing
Operators use ‘clean energy’ as a label for incineration or co-incineration to get access to clean energy grants from the government, or to gain environmental credibility (which can be seen as a form of greenwashing)
Reduction Of Waste By Producers & Consumers May Be More Beneficial Than Incineration In Some Ways
Some point out that a better option than incineration is to reduce waste generated by producers and consumers in the first place.
Some Companies That Own Incineration Plants Or Invest In Them Have Several Conflicts Of Interest
Such as:
– Having Relationships & Shared Or Vested Interests With Third Parties
Plants may have complex vested interests with governments and auditing bodies
From insidecroydon.com:
With Croydon Council in the UK, and perhaps other places, some believe there is an economic conflict of interest with governments, and private companies that manage landfill, recycling and incineration waste.
Because of the way the rates are set up and taxes work, diverting waste away from recycling to incineration is very profitable.
‘Contaminated’ recycling waste is a loophole companies might try take advantage of to divert more waste to incinerators and make more money
– Owning Both Recycling & Incineration Plants
In this instance, they may send waste to the waste management option that is most profitable, instead of the one that is most sustainable or best protects human health and safety.
Some Companies That Own Incineration Plants Or Invest In Them, Might Buy Them For Questionable Reasons
Investing in incineration plants can come with a lack of accountability in some countries who have their own self interested agenda to set up and develop more of them.
Some investors buy non profitable plants so they can bid for and obtain much larger profitable ones (if pre owning a plant is a requirement of a bidding brief), and some investors let profit slip on some plants because they know they can pass on costs to government and state owned firms
Some Companies That Own Incineration Plants Or Invest In Them, Might Have Questionable Operation Practices
Such as:
– In some countries like China, incineration plants and waste to energy plants might fraudulently obtain government waste disposal subsidies
– There might be unwritten rules in some countries that can place profit over human health and environmental standards
Recycling vs Landfill vs Incineration vs Composting: Comparison
We’ve put together a short comparison guide here of the different major waste management options.
Best Way To Manage Waste In Society
We also put together a separate guide on what the best way to manage waste in society might be
Sources
1. https://ourworldindata.org/faq-on-plastics#what-are-the-environmental-impacts-of-incineration
2. https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/8971-The-waste-to-power-reality-faked-emissions-data-and-huge-profits
3. https://e360.yale.edu/features/incineration_versus_recycling__in_europe_a_debate_over_trash
4. https://zerowasteeurope.eu/2017/09/4-reasons-why-recycling-is-better-than-incineration/
5. https://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2012/11/02/despite-npr-no-burning-trash-is-not-profitable/#4857e3751292
6. https://insidecroydon.com/2016/02/02/profits-of-doom-how-to-make-millions-from-burning-crap/
7. https://theconversation.com/garbage-in-garbage-out-incinerating-trash-is-not-an-effective-way-to-protect-the-climate-or-reduce-waste-84182
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incineration
9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479717302864
10. https://www.clientearth.org/latest/latest-updates/stories/the-environmental-impacts-of-waste-incineration
11. https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a3752/4291566/
12. https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2015/10/14/economist-rethink-how-we-recycle
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